How Is Beef Cattle Important to the Southwestern Economy

Introduction

Humans have used livestock grazing to conform to arid landscapes for millennia (Clutton-Brock, 1989), only as livestock production has become embedded in a circuitous transnational meat supply chain, new strategies are needed to ensure sustainable production into the futurity. In the United States, virtually 25,000 cattle ranches are located in the arid and semi-arid Southwest¹. These ranches produce ~vi% of the cows that provide calves for the US beef industry, making Southwestern ranching essential non simply to local communities, economies, and landscapes, but to the nation'south overall beef supply, as well (Havstad et al., 2018; USDA-NASS, 2020). However, the fragility of the predominant supply chain emanating from the Southwest coupled with increasing heat and drought are threatening the capacity of Southwestern ranchers to produce beef sustainably (Gershunov et al., 2013; Polley et al., 2013; Havstad et al., 2018; McIntosh et al., 2019; Hendrickson, 2020).

Nigh calves weaned on the moo-cow-calf ranches of the Southwest are exported to the Ogallala Aquifer region^two for backgrounding, grain finishing, and meat sales (Johnson and Becker, 2009; Buhnerkempe et al., 2013; Blank et al., 2016). The Ogallala Aquifer region too imports grain from the Upper Midwest³ to meet feeding quotas non filled by local feed product (Gottschalk, 2007; Guerrero et al., 2013). Problems in one link of this inter-regional supply chain can compromise resilience of the unabridged chain. Moreover, interventions designed to solve issues in 1 region bear upon, and are afflicted by, ecological and socioeconomic dynamics in connected regions. Therefore, to foster beef production that is truly sustainable – that is, that satisfies dietary need, protects ecology quality, and ensures economic security and good quality of life for producers and gild (National Research Council, 2010; Kleinman et al., 2018) – we must sympathize the performance of beef production in multiple realms and in the multiple regions connected by supply and demand (Liu, 2017).

With these goals in mind, iii strategies evidence promise for improving sustainability of beef production originating in the U.s.a. Southwest and the regions connected to it: heritage cattle genetics, precision ranching, and alternative supply chain options. Here we summarize the major challenges to the sustainability of Southwest beefiness product, provide rationale for evaluating these three strategies as ways to address the challenges, and report early results of our multi-disciplinary, multi-year approach to understanding the benefits and drawbacks associated with each strategy (Figure 1). Our approach was funded in 2019 every bit a 5-year Coordinated Agronomical Projection (CAP) past the Usa Section of Agriculture – National Found of Food and Agriculture (NIFA-AFRI #2019-69012-29853, www.swbeef.org). Here we written report results of the first year of the "Sustainable Southwest Beefiness CAP."

Figure 1. The Sustainable Southwest Beef CAP is investigating three strategies with potential to amend sustainability of beef production originating from the American Southwest, using a boundary-spanning approach of education, participatory research, and extension.

Sustainability Challenges for Southwest Beef Production

Sustainability Challenges on Pasture and Ranch Scales

Similar to other arid landscapes worldwide, range pastures of the American Southwest tend to be big and heterogeneous. Frequent use of detail locations by cattle can result in perennial grass loss (Bestelmeyer et al., 2018), soil degradation (Nash et al., 2003), and increased dust emissions (Baddock et al., 2011) – all of which diminish cattle weight gains (Holechek, 1992). Manipulating fencing, water locations, and timing of apply are common approaches to improving livestock distribution in rangelands (Heitschmidt and Taylor, 1991; Owens et al., 1991). These interventions, however, can be cost-prohibitive to establish and maintain in arid systems (Chase et al., 2007).

High input costs coupled with external market forces contribute to rates of return varying from net losses to just +3% on annual investment in the ranches of the American Southwest – significantly lower than the 6% received by US agriculture on the whole (Torell et al., 2001; USDA-ERS, 2016). Looking ahead, these economic stresses are projected to intensify equally the Southwest continues to experience college temperatures, increasing frequency and intensity of heat waves, and more frequent droughts (Gershunov et al., 2013; Briske et al., 2015; USGCRP, 2017). These novel climate exposures are predicted to touch on ecosystems and economics through diminished rangeland carrying capacities, increased site vulnerability to soil degradation, compromised regional feed and pasture forage production, and intensified animal heat stress (Havstad et al., 2018).

Sustainability Challenges on the Supply Chain Calibration

Looking across ranch gates, the specialization and concentration of United states beefiness cattle and cattle feed production has greatly increased efficiency in terms of price per unit of measurement of product of beefiness (Dimitri et al., 2005; Capper, 2011); nevertheless, information technology has also contributed to a host of environmental, economical, and societal concerns, including compromised ecology quality and quality of life for communities well-nigh concentrated feedlot manure (Casey et al., 2006), as well as vulnerabilities in supply chains. For case, occupancy restrictions in meat processing plants experienced in the bound of 2020 due to COVID-nineteen have resulted in cattle remaining in feedyards longer, and fewer conventional cuts being bachelor in supermarkets, affecting the ranches upstream (Peel et al., 2020; Texas A&M, 2020). The lack of typical beef cuts and book in supermarkets resulted, for many Americans, in expanded involvement in the provenance of beef and local beefiness products (Atkins, 2020; Emmert, 2020; Nagus, 2020). While it is too early to predict long-term effects at the writing of this article, it is possible that investment in alternative, local supply chains may ultimately touch on the long-term economic sustainability of conventional grain finishing (Hobbs, 2020).

Strategies Toward Sustainability: New Inquiry and Early Results

Heritage Cattle

The Raramuri Criollo biotype has undergone 500 years of accommodation to the harsh atmospheric condition of the Sierra Tarahumara in northern Mexico with minimal genetic influence of improved beef breeds (Estell et al., 2012; Anderson et al., 2015). Based on by enquiry, Raramuri Criollo appear to experience less estrus stress on hot summer days (Nyamuryekung'e et al., 2017) and have been anecdotally observed to provender more than on low-quality grasses and shrubs than conventional beef breeds (Anderson et al., 2015). In addition, during seasons when green forage is relatively deficient and patchily distributed, Raramuri Criollo have been found to accomplish greater distribution than conventional cattle types (Peinetti et al., 2011; Spiegal et al., 2019).

To date, grass finishing has been the primary selection for Southwestern producers raising Raramuri Criollo, which tin can be finished on grass simply get passed over at auctions in the conventional production chain due to color and shape not-conformity (Enyinnaya, 2016; Torell et al., in review). Some other selection is cross-breeding the heritage type with beefiness breeds used conventionally, thereby maintaining the potential economic and environmental benefits of Raramuri Criollo cows while producing more widely marketable offspring (Martínez-Cordova et al., 2014; Mcintosh et al., 2018).

While grass finishing and grain-finishing cattle with Raramuri Criollo genetics bear witness promise for economic and environmental sustainability, especially under warmer and drier conditions, more than information is needed earlier adoption of Raramuri Criollo genetics can exist widely recommended. To fill these information gaps, a long-term breed comparison study was initiated in March 2020 on the New Mexico Country University (NMSU) Chihuahuan Desert Rangeland Research Middle (CDRRC) in Las Cruces, New Mexico. Four large pastures were dedicated to the respective cow-calf herds – two pastures for a heritage herd, and two for a conventional Brangus herd. External inputs and outputs are being quantified to assess differences in ranch total gene productivity (Ramankutty et al., 2018) betwixt herds, and vegetation and soils are beingness monitoring to appraise the ecological effects. To understand the processes driving production and ecological outcomes, cattle movements are beingness monitored in existent fourth dimension (meet below), and costs and returns are being measured, including supplement intake, per centum calf crop, and kilograms of dogie weaned.

The feedlot and finishing functioning will be compared between the heritage crossbred calves and conventional beef calves at research facilities in the Ogallala Aquifer region. Calves for this component of the study are being raised on cooperating ranches in southern New Mexico, southeastern California, and southeastern Utah (stars in Figure 1). The first calf crop is scheduled to be transported to Clayton, New Mexico for wheat pasture backgrounding and eventual finishing at Clayton, New United mexican states, and Texas A&M Agrilife Research facilities in Bushland, Texas in fall 2020, and repeated the following ii years. Slaughtered cattle will be subjected to beefiness quality tests including consumer gustation panels at Texas A&1000 Academy in College Station, Texas in 2021, 2022, and 2023.

This breed comparing leverages one of 18 coordinated experiments in the Long-Term Agroecosystem Enquiry (LTAR) network Common Experiment, contributing to a national assessment of the benefits and drawbacks of adopting "aspirational" direction approaches on farms and ranches nationwide (Spiegal et al., 2018). This experiment is also function of an international network of long term grazing studies comparison the environmental footprint of Criollo vs. improved beefiness breeds at sites in Mexico and Argentina.

Precision Ranching

Sensor-driven precision farming, already mainstream in intensive animal agriculture systems (Neethirajan, 2017), can also assistance ranchers in the warming and drying American Southwest brand rapid decisions to sustain animal health and fodder resources. Real-time assay of shifts in animal motion patterns associated with failing forage, inadequate or faulty water supply, birth, or predation helps ranchers to intervene apace, effectively providing a type of early warning arrangement addressing multiple sustainability problems.

Importantly, these technologies can help reduce economic and environmental costs of ranching in extensive, arid lands. Based on calculations for the 780-kmⁱⁱ USDA-ARS Jornada Experimental Range, wireless sensors indicating water levels in troughs could save 388–478 h of driving time and 742–956 gallons of fuel, which translates into $7,800–$10,000 in almanac cost savings, 6.half dozen–viii.v metric tons of avoided CO_two emissions, and more time for pursuing other endeavors. On the other manus, investments in the system such as installation, maintenance, and time spent learning to use the engineering science can reduce overall toll-effectiveness of adoption.

To investigate the potential of these technologies in extensive arid landscapes, we are developing a precision ranching system able to log, transmit, and analyze animal, weather, and h2o sensor data in real time via a long-range, low power wireless area network (LoRa WAN), to exist tested at five participating ranches (Effigy 1). Cost inputs and savings from this technology will be assessed via enterprise budgets (Torell et al., 2014), and a survey instrument volition be used to determine user perceptions regarding the usefulness of all aspects of system implementation. With this agreement of cost savings and feedback from participating ranchers, a market-set product should be available within 6 years.

During the showtime year of the project, nosotros built a airplane pilot model and are testing it at the NMSU CDRRC, where the long-term breed comparison study was initiated. The GPS collars, watering tank, and rainfall sensors accept been collecting data since March 2020 (Supplement 1). Initial testing and calibration of components of the precision ranching system at CDRRC is allowing us to gauge its usefulness and is helping our team identify and carefully certificate potential challenges of using LoRa WAN on extensive cattle ranches with sparse communication networks. Understanding these technological hurdles volition be critically important as nosotros roll out the precision ranching system on cooperating commercial ranches in the well-nigh future.

Supply Chain Options

Amid concerns about food safety and environmental impacts of beef supply chains, the market share for culling beef products – natural, certified organic, grass-fed – has been growing in contempo decades (Tonsor et al., 2009; Mathews and Johnson, 2013; Food Marketing Institute, 2017), and societal interest in locally-sourced food appears to be growing rapidly during the ongoing COVID-19 pandemic. Thus, ranchers who grass-finish Raramuri Criollo cattle are role of a larger community in the American Southwest that has adopted grass finishing for a multifariousness of reasons (Barnes, 2011).

During the past twelvemonth of engaging with Southwestern producers who grass finish cattle, we have come to identify ii main approaches: (1) finishing locally on arid ranches, and (2) exporting weaned calves to the Northern Plains⁴ (the "Follow the Green" production organization). Much is unknown about the rate of adoption of these approaches, their ecological and economic outcomes, or how those outcomes compare with those of grain finishing systems – especially equally the Ogallala Aquifer region's backgrounding and feedlot industries face threats of aquifer depletion (McGuire, 2017) and the expanding impacts of the COVID-xix pandemic (Hendrickson, 2020). Therefore, we are working to create a noesis base for producers, consumers, regional planners, and policy makers involved with Southwest beef product so they can compare grass finishing vs. grain finishing nether various scenarios of change. Our main belittling tools are the Integrated Farm Organisation Model (IFSM; Rotz et al., 2019) and a multi-regional "pericoupling" analysis (Liu, 2017).

The IFSM uses production inputs in the farms and ranches of a given supply chain to guess the environmental and economic outcomes of that supply chain (including energy utilisation; carbon, phosphorus, and reactive nitrogen footprints; water consumption; production costs; and net returns). We are using IFSM to compare economic and environmental outcomes in 6 supply chains: Follow the Dark-green with and without Raramuri Criollo, Grass-Finishing in the Southwest with and without Raramuri Criollo, and Grain-Finishing in the Ogallala Aquifer Region with and without Raramuri Criollo. We are gathering information on inputs from v ranchers and ii feedyard operators formally participating in projection research, too as from other producers engaged through the CAP's extension efforts (come across below). Ultimately the simulated environmental and economic effects will provide a measure of the long-term sustainability of the 6 supply chains, so that tradeoffs tin can be quantified and compared.

All six product systems being simulated in the IFSM originate with calves born on Southwestern ranches. The weaned calves are then exported to other regions (Follow the Green, Grain-Finishing), or are held back from those regions (Grass-Finishing in the Southwest). Given these inter-regional connections, we aim to understand how dynamics in one region affect the dynamics of the others, and vice versa. To that stop, we are conducting a "pericoupling" analysis (Liu, 2017) to narrate the socioeconomic and environmental interactions among the regional systems linked via beef production nether both the electric current system and a plausible about-future scenario (da Silva et al., 2019). Using the pericoupling framework, we are addressing the following questions about the connected regions under both the electric current and future scenarios (Table one):

1. What are the flows of resources amongst four regions connected through beef production (the Southwest, Ogallala Aquifer region, Upper Midwest, and Northern Plains)?

2. What agents bring forth the connections (pericouplings) between the regions?

3. What are the causes of the pericouplings between the regions?

4. What are the major effects of the pericouplings on each region?

Tabular array 1. Preliminary results of a pericoupling analysis to appraise linkages of iv regions affected past beef product in the American Southwest, nether the electric current organisation and a plausible near-time to come scenario.

During the past yr, we have built our pericoupling database with agro-economic datasets that span national, land, and regional levels, every bit well as results from IFSM simulations, and information from our integrated extension and education activities. Preliminary results are in Table 1.

Boundary-Spanning Approach

We designed the Sustainable Southwest Beef CAP to span boundaries between science and decision-making in order to improve actions in both realms (sensu Bednarek et al., 2018). A central pillar is participatory research: All inquiry is existence conducted at least in part on commercial ranches, with direct involvement of ranch operators. This involvement, from study pattern to execution to information estimation, is ensuring tight linkages between science and real-globe challenges and opportunities in Southwestern beef production. The boundary-spanning approach was adopted, in part, to ensure a realistic understanding of opportunities for, and barriers to, adoption of the strategies under investigation.

To understand more than about the potential for adoption of the strategies under investigation, during the past year, knowledge co-production/extension partners in the Sustainable Southwest Beef CAP – from New Mexico State Academy, the USDA Southwest Climate Hub, and Texas A&1000 AgriLife – engaged with producers from the Southwest and the regions pericoupled to the Southwest through beef production. Central tools have been on-ranch demonstrations, in-person events, podcasts, and surveys. For case, the project team hosted an event for ~125 ranchers, feedlot operators and others connected to the beef cattle industry at the 2020 Southwest Beefiness Symposium in Amarillo, Texas, where initial rancher perceptions of the three strategies were nerveless. Cattle producers (north = 36) from 26 counties beyond seven states completed the CAP'south "baseline" survey (Elias et al., in review). In response to a question most which topic of the projection would be nearly immediately applicable to their operation, about a quarter indicated that precision ranching applied science is most applicable, some other quarter selected range finishing in the Southwest and other supply chain options, and another quarter chose the overall integrated approach of the CAP as virtually applicative. Ten percent of respondents indicated that Spanish/heritage breed cattle would be most applicative. We volition compare baseline data with surveys at the end of the v-year project to find changes in perceptions almost the strategies.

In partnership with the knowledge co-production/extension and inquiry teams, the Asombro Institute for Science Education in New Mexico and the BlueSTEM Agri-Learning Middle in Oklahoma have adult lessons and teacher trainings to increment science literacy, advance knowledge about difficult determination-making technology in agriculture, and garner feedback well-nigh the strategies under investigation from the agricultural professionals of tomorrow. The integration of 1000-12 activities into the other components of the CAP emphasizes collaboration, interdisciplinary thinking, and potent communication skills (Bestelmeyer et al., 2015).

In the first twelvemonth of the projection, the education team developed a ane-h classroom lesson and a field trip activity to introduce lower elementary students to Raramuri Criollo (https://asombro.org/wp-content/uploads/Criollo.pdf). Lessons were based on the Sustainable Southwest Beefiness CAP projection and aligned with the Next Generation Scientific discipline Standards (NGSS), making them relevant to teachers in New Mexico and 19 other states using these standards. Lessons were adult and pilot tested with more than 200 2nd and tertiary grade students in the fall 2020 semester.

Schoolhouse closings in the leap 2020 semester halted classroom lessons, field trips, and teacher trainings. The education team therefore pivoted toward developing an interactive learning experience that could exist washed by students learning from dwelling. "Solving the Beefiness" (https://asombro.org/solvingthebeef/) is a game that encourages players in competing teams to develop creative solutions for sustainable beefiness production and marketing given a set of scenarios and constraints. It is built around engineering science design principles from NGSS. Though Solving the Beef was developed as an adaptation to social distancing, it can too be played in a traditional classroom or after-school setting. The game volition exist expanded by adding additional scenarios equally results from the Southwest Beef CAP are published. Moreover, the game will permit the education squad to collect ideas from students – the producers and consumers of tomorrow – to feed back to the research component of the project.

Assessing and Communicating Tradeoffs

In addition to peer-reviewed and popular press manufactures, an interactive repository is being built to house and communicate the integrated cognition developed by the Sustainable Southwest Beef CAP. The "Western Beef Knowledge System" is beingness designed to help controlling effectually beef product and consumption, with geographically-specific information for producers about the potential benefits and drawbacks of adopting the strategies nether investigation, and for consumers seeking locally-tailored guidance on how they can purchase beef that aligns with their stated values. We have also adult short factsheets for use past regional planners and other policy makers, every bit they evaluate incentives for adoption of the strategies and sympathise the inter-regional effects of alternative beef supply bondage (https://southwestbeef.org/factsheets).

Ultimately, our goal is to apply new, integrated knowledge to accelerate sustainability of US beef product. Adoption of animal genetics suited to a hotter, drier climate, precision technologies that provide affordable and timely information for ranch management, and alternative marketing options all have potential to meliorate economic, environmental, and societal outcomes. Yet, when making pregnant changes in an agronomical organization, full consideration of the regions pericoupled through production is necessary to achieve desired outcomes. With our purlieus-spanning arroyo, we aim to illuminate these inter-regional connections, and identify viable pathways to improve sustainability for beef producers, beefiness consumers, and the rangelands cherished by Americans nationwide.

Writer Contributions

All authors contributed as to the ideas in this commodity. SS was lead writer with contributions from, and editing by, AFC, BB, JS, RE, DA, CR, and MMu. MMc created artwork for Figure i.

Funding

The Sustainable Southwest Beef Coordinated Agricultural Project was funded by the USDA National Institute of Food and Agriculture, Agriculture and Nutrient Research Initiative'due south Sustainable Agricultural Systems (SAS) plan. Grant #2019-69012-29853. This enquiry was as well a contribution from the Long-Term Agroecosystem Research (LTAR) network. LTAR is supported by the U.s.a. Department of Agronomics.

Conflict of Interest

The authors declare that the research was conducted in the absence of whatever commercial or financial relationships that could be construed as a potential conflict of interest.

Acknowledgments

Many cheers to Dr. Jack Liu for sharing his expertise for our pericoupling analysis. Thanks likewise to Dr. David Anderson of Texas A&One thousand for providing data on interstate cattle movements into Texas and inspected by the Texas Beast Health Commission, as discussed in the Supplementary Information.

Supplementary Material

The Supplementary Material for this article can be establish online at: https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/fsufs.2020.00114/total#supplementary-fabric

Footnotes

1. ^Nosotros define the US Southwest as the states of New Mexico, Arizona, Nevada, Utah, California (Figure 1).

2. ^Nosotros define the Ogallala Aquifer region as parts of Texas, New Mexico, Oklahoma, Kansas, Nebraska, Colorado, Wyoming, and Southward Dakota (Figure 1).

3. ^We define the Upper Midwest equally the "Corn Belt" which covers Indiana, Illinois, Iowa, Missouri, eastern Nebraska, and eastern Kansas.

4. ^Nosotros define the Northern Plains as North Dakota, South Dakota, Minnesota, Iowa, and Nebraska.

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Source: https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/fsufs.2020.00114/full

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